Called to stay? The moderating roles of feedback from others and role clarity in the relationship between experiencing a calling and organizational embeddedness

Muehlhausen, J., Spurk, D., Hirschi, A., & Sandmeier, A. (2023). Called to stay? The moderating roles of feedback from others and role clarity in the relationship between experiencing a calling and organizational embeddedness. Career Development International, 28(2), 160-179.

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Abstract

Purpose – Organizational embeddedness of employees who are experiencing their work as a calling is of high relevance. Understanding what promotes staying in organizations can provide benefits for individuals with a calling while at the same time helping organizations to retain those valuable employees. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how and when experiencing work as a calling relates to organizational embeddedness (OE). Based on assumptions from the theory of work adjustment (TWA), the authors hypothesized a conditional effects model with feedback from others and role clarity as moderating variables.

Design/methodology/approach – For this longitudinal study, the authors collected data at two measurement time points (N 5 553). To tests the hypotheses, the authors performed hierarchical regression analysis. Additionally, the authors conducted simple slope tests to calculate the effects of calling on OE, depending on the different levels of the moderators.

Findings – The results indicated that higher levels of experiencing a calling are associated with higher levels of OE 18 months later while controlling for the initial levels of OE. Additionally, the moderation analysis revealed that feedback from others and role clarity strengthened the relationship between experiencing a calling and OE. Interestingly, for individuals with low feedback from others and low role clarity, experiencing a calling was not related to OE.

Originality/value – Addressing recent research calls that highlight more research on boundary conditions and diverse theoretical perspectives, this study contributes to the literature on calling and organizational retention and provides a more individual and career-related view of potential predictors of OE.

Keywords: calling, organizational embeddedness, feedback from others, role clarity, employee retention, theory of work adjustment

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Profiles of Calling and Their Relation to University-to-Work Transition Outcomes

Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Li, M., & You, X. (2021). Profiles of calling and their relation to university-to-work transition outcomes. Journal of Career Development.

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Abstract

In this study, we adopted a person-centered approach using latent profile analysis to explore whether profiles of calling based on the internal and external sources of a calling are identified and how these profiles relate to successful university-to-work transition outcomes (i.e., higher career satisfaction, higher person-job fit, and lower turnover intentions). We assessed a sample of 684 Chinese university graduates one week before and six months after graduation and found five profiles of calling: Strongly undeveloped calling, moderately undeveloped calling, transcendent calling, highly transcendent calling, and modern calling. We found that a calling which was driven by internal and external sources (i.e., transcendent calling) or predominantly by internal sources (i.e., modern calling) related to more successful university-to-work transition outcomes. Our findings contribute to the literature on calling by showing that the sources of calling are important to conceptualize different types of calling and differentiate the role of different callings.

Keywords: Calling profiles, sources of calling, university to work transition, latent profile analysis, career satisfaction

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Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees

Zhang, C., & Hirschi, A. (2021). Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees. Career Development International.

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Abstract

Purpose – Calling is typically associated with more intrinsic than extrinsic work motivation.

This could give the impression that employees with a calling do not need or care about external rewards. To deepen the understanding of the relationship between calling and work motivation, we tested how calling is combined with different types of work motivation and how such combinations affect work outcomes differentially.
Design/methodology/approach – We applied latent profile analysis among Chinese employees with diverse occupations (N = 1,290) to identify calling and work motivation profiles and test their relations with work outcomes, assessed four months later.
Findings – Four profiles emerged: externally motivated low calling, moderately externally motivated calling, moderately motivated calling, and highly motivated calling. Employees with weaker and stronger callings indicated being extrinsically motivated for work. Employees in the highly motivated calling profile exhibited highest job satisfaction, lowest cynicism, and lowest turnover intentions, followed by employees in the moderately motivated calling profile, the moderately externally motivated calling profile, and the externally motivated low calling profile.
Implications – Our findings imply that employees with a strong calling do care about external rewards and also benefit from external incentives to work.
Originality/value – This study is the first to explore the differential relationship between callingZhang, C., & Hirschi, A. (2021). Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees. Career Development International. and work motivation. Moreover, our findings offer insights regarding the under- researched notion that different types of calling predict work outcomes differently.

Keywords: Calling profiles, work motivation, external motivation, latent profile analysis, job satisfaction
Article classification: Research paper

Trajectories of calling in the transition from university to work: A growth mixture analysis

Zhang, C., & Hirschi, A., & You, X. (2020). Trajectories of calling in the transition from university to work: A growth mixture analysis. Journal of Career Assessment. doi: 10.1177/1069072720931010

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Abstract

Research on the development of calling is still in its infancy and rarely focused on how calling changes during a major career transition. The current study examined the developmental trajectories of calling and their relation with personality (i.e., conscientiousness, proactive personality) in the transition from university to work with a three-wave longitudinal study with 340 Chinese graduating university students. Results based on growth mixture modeling indicated three developmental trajectories of calling: high and stable calling (23% of sample), high but decreasing calling (74%), and low and increasing calling (3%). Moreover, higher conscientiousness related to a higher chance of being classified into the high and stable calling trajectory. These findings add notable insights to the literature by exploring the previously neglected developmental trajectories of calling and their association with personality in the transition from university to work.

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Reciprocal Relation Between Authenticity and Calling among Chinese University Students: A Latent Change Score Approach

Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Dik, B. J., Wei, J. & You, X. (2018). Reciprocal relation between authenticity and calling among Chinese university students: a latent change score approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 107, 222-232. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.005

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Abstract

It is common to hear that following one’s “true self” is an important means to find a calling, yet no study has directly examined this possibility. In this study, we investigate the change pattern between authenticity and calling. Specifically, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal study with 459 Chinese university students over one year and examined the reciprocal dynamic relationship between authenticity (i.e., authentic living, self-alienation, and accepting external influence) and calling. Results of a bivariate latent change score model examining within- individual changes over time showed that increases in authentic living were positively correlated with increases in calling, while increases in self-alienation and accepting external influence negatively correlated with increases in calling. We also found that higher levels of calling predicted less decrease in authentic living. However, higher levels of authentic living significantly predicted a decrease in calling over time. Our findings contribute to the literature on calling by suggesting a dynamic change pattern of authenticity and calling among Chinese university students.

Keywords: Calling, authenticity, authentic living, accepting external influence, latent change score model

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Calling as a double-edged sword for work-nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers

Hirschi, A., Keller, A. C., & Spurk, D. (2019). Calling as a double-edged sword for work-nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.02.004

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Having a calling has been linked to various positive outcomes, but the potential negative effects of having a calling have not yet received comparable attention. Moreover, research thus far has neglected to examine how callings affect the work–nonwork interface. Based on the work–home resources model, and work–family enrichment theory, we presumed that having a calling can increase as well as deplete personal resources at work, which, in turn, promote work–nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers. We investigated these assumptions among 599 employees, aged between 50 and 60 years, by examining within-individual changes in presence of calling, positive affect at work, workaholism, work–nonwork enrichment, and work–nonwork conflict over a period of one year, with two measurement points. Results indicated that an increase in the presence of a calling was positively related to increased levels of positive affect at work, which, in turn, was positively related to increased work–nonwork enrichment. However, an increase in the presence of a calling was also positively related to increased workaholism, which was positively related to increased work–nonwork conflict. The findings suggest that having a calling is meaningfully related to the work–nonwork interface among older workers in both positive and negative ways. 

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Living one's calling: Job resources as a link between having and living a calling

Hirschi, A., Keller, A. & Spurk D. (2018). Living one’s calling: Job resources as a link between having and living a calling. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2017.12.001

Abstract

Recent research on calling has pointed to the important distinction between having and living a calling in order to explain the positive effects of callings on well-being. However, how the link between having a calling and living a calling might be explained has only been partially addressed. In the present study, we focused on the neglected role of workplace characteristics as key factors in this regard. In a sample of 232 working adults in Germany, we established that presence of calling and living a calling were significantly related to job resources in terms of decision-making autonomy, task significance, and social support at work. Moreover, presence of calling and living a calling positively related to level of education, leadership position, and salary. Testing indirect effects with bootstrapping analyses, we found that job resources, specifically decision-making autonomy and task significance, partially mediated the relation of presence of calling with living a calling, while controlling for educational level and leadership position. The results support the idea that living a calling is not just about finding work that fits one’s calling. People who have a calling are also more likely to live their calling by working in jobs with more job resources.

Keywords: Presence of calling; living a calling; work characteristics; job resources

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The future work self and calling: The mediational role of life meaning

Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Herrmann, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (in press). The future work self and calling: The mediational role of life meaning. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1-15, doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9760-y

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Abstract

Research on calling prevailingly focuses on the positive effects on well-being and career development. However, explorations of the predictors and emergence of callings are sparse. We tested a model in which clarity about the future work self promotes one’s sense of calling through increased life meaning. We sampled 473 Chinese college students with a three-wave panel design over 1 year. Using time-lagged analysis, we found that the future work self at T1 significantly predicted increased life meaning at T2, which, in turn, significantly predicted increased calling at T3. This indirect effect was significant and supported the hypothesized longitudinal mediation model. The reverse effects of one’s calling as a predictor of self-clarity about one’s future work life or life meaning were not confirmed. Our findings suggest that among Chinese college students, self-clarity about one’s future work life and understanding one’s life meaning are two important steps in the development of one’s calling.

Competitive climate and workaholism: Negative sides of future orientation and calling

Keller, A., Spurk, D., Baumeler, F., & Hirschi, A. (2016). Competitive climate and workaholism: Negative sides of future orientation and calling. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 122-126, doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.061

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Abstract

The perception of a competitive climate at work creates stress, uncertainty, and a desire to outperform colleagues. In this study, we investigated whether a competitive climate is associated with increased workaholism. Furthermore, we assumed that especially employees with a future orientation and a presence of a calling will show more workaholic behavior when a competitive climate is present. Hierarchical regression analyses among 812 employees in Germany confirmed our hypotheses: Competitive climate was positively related with workaholism and was stronger related to workaholism under conditions of high future orientation and high calling. These findings suggest that contextual factors at work and individual factors interact to form workaholism. Our results may be explained by the experience of more uncertainty in competitive work climates for individuals with high future orientation and the presence of a calling. Consequently, these employees may invest more physical and cognitive efforts into their work to cope with the competition.

Self-directed career attitude as predictor of career and life satisfaction in Chinese employees: Calling as mediator and job insecurity as moderator

Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Herrmann, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (2015). Self-directed career attitude as predictor of career and life satisfaction in Chinese employees: Calling as mediator and job insecurity as moderator. Career Development International, 20(7), 703-716.

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Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test if the effects of a self-directed career attitude on career and life satisfaction are mediated by a person’s sense of calling and moderated by job insecurity in a sample of Chinese employees.

Design/methodology/approach – Among a sample of Chinese employees (n = 263), in this paper, a moderated mediation analysis with bootstrapping was applied to test the hypotheses.

Findings – The results showed that calling mediates the effects of a self-directed career attitude on career satisfaction and life satisfaction. Job insecurity moderated the effect on life satisfaction but not on career satisfaction. The effect on life satisfaction were stronger under higher levels of job insecurity.

Research limitations/implications – These results suggest that a self-directed career attitude may help people develop a calling, which in turn relates to increased subjective career success and well-being. In addition, the notion of a calling may be especially important for well-being in unstable job circumstances.

Originality/value – This study is the first to explore a calling and a self-directed career attitude in a sample of Chinese employees. Corresponding to contemporary China’s rapidly changing context of economy and career development, a self-directed career orientation plays an important role in Chinese employees’ calling and subjective career success.

Keywords: Calling, Job insecurity, Life satisfaction, Self-directed career attitude, Subjective career success

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Assessing calling in Chinese college students: Development of a measure and its relation to hope

Zhang, C., Herrmann, A., Hirschi, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (2015). Assessing Calling in Chinese College Students: Development of a Measure and Its Relation to Hope. Journal of Career Assessment, 23(4), 582-596, doi: 10.1177/1069072715595804.

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Calling and career preparation: Investigating developmental patterns and temporal precedence

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Hirschi, A., & Herrmann, A. (2013). Calling and career preparation: Investigating developmental patterns and temporal precedence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(1), 51-60. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.02.008

Callings and work engagement: Moderated mediation model of work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy

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Hirschi, A. (2012). Callings and work engagement: Moderated mediation model of work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 479-485. doi:10.1037/a0028949

Vocational identity achievement as a mediator of presence of calling and life satisfaction

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Hirschi, A. & Herrmann, A. (2012). Vocational identity achievement as a mediator of presence of calling and life satisfaction. Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 309-321. doi:10.1177/1069072711436158

Callings in career: A typological approach to essential and optional components

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Hirschi, A. (2011). Callings in career: A typological approach to essential and optional components. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 60-73. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.11.002